Neuroscience Fundamentals for Communication Sciences and Disorders

Neuroscience Fundamentals for Communication Sciences and Disorders, Third Edition continues to set the standard for teaching the neural bases of communication with a uniquely engaging, clinically relevant, and student-friendly approach. Designed for undergraduate neuroanatomy and graduate neuroscience courses in CSD programs, this comprehensive text also serves as a trusted reference for practicing speech-language pathologists and audiologists in medical and rehabilitation settings.

Written in a conversational style that incorporates humor, relatable analogies, and clear explanations, the text demystifies complex neuroanatomy and neurophysiology while maintaining scientific rigor. More than 350 beautifully rendered, full-color illustrations bring key concepts to life, supporting visual learning and helping readers make meaningful connections between brain structures, neural processes, and communication outcomes.

The Third Edition builds on its strong foundation with a more intuitive organization, expanded clinical content, and enhanced learning tools that foster critical thinking and clinical application. By emphasizing the integration of brain and behavior, this text equips students and practitioners with the knowledge and confidence to interpret neurological information and apply it to assessment and intervention in real-world settings.

Whether used in the classroom or in clinical practice, Neuroscience Fundamentals for Communication Sciences and Disorders provides a clear, cohesive, and clinically meaningful understanding of the human nervous system as it relates to speech, language, and hearing.

New to the Third Edition

• Addition of 45 detailed clinical case studies, strategically integrated throughout the text to strengthen structure–function–disorder connections and teach clinical reasoning
• Over 80 summary tables, including nearly 40 new ones, to support efficient review and consolidation of key concepts
• Extensive reorganization of content into four new thematic sections for better progression and integration across topics
• Division of longer neuroanatomy chapters into shorter, more digestible, and logically sequenced content
• A new chapter on neural mechanisms of speech and language, with streamlined theoretical discussions and expanded clinical coverage of neurologically based communication disorders
• Separate speech, language, and hearing chapters from the previous edition are now embedded within neuroanatomical and systems chapters for better structure–function–behavior integration
• Reorganization of auditory system chapters for clearer peripheral-to-central progression and improved sequencing
• Restructuring of motor systems content, including a new unified chapter linking muscle contraction with direct motor control and a separate chapter dedicated to indirect motor systems
• Consolidation of neuroplasticity and sensorimotor learning content into a final streamlined capstone chapter, emphasizing behavioral adaptability and sensorimotor learning

PluralPlus Online Ancillaries

For instructors: PowerPoint Slides, Test Bank, Image Bank (with labeled and unlabeled figures), Syllabus with different reading schedules to accommodate varying semester lengths​​​​​​​
For students: Chapter Study Guides, Study Question Worksheets, Cranial Nerve Testing Guide, eFlashcards, Unlabeled Anatomy Illustrations, Brain Model Demonstration Videos, Mind Maps, Simplified Summaries on Technical Content.

Contents

Preface
About the Author
About the Illustrator: Maury Aaseng
Contributors
Reviewers
Acknowledgments    

Section 1. Foundations: Neuron Structure and Signaling

Chapter 1. Neuroscience Fundamentals in Communication Sciences and Disorders: Introduction, Textbook Organization, and Study Suggestions
Richard D. Andreatta
What Is Neuroscience?
What Is This Book About?
The View From 30,000 Feet Up
    Overview of Section 1: Foundations: Neuron Structure and Signaling
    Overview of Section 2: Neuroanatomy: Peripheral and Central Nervous Systems
    Overview of Section 3: Sensory Systems: Somatosensation, Audition, Vision, and the Chemical Senses
    Overview of Section 4: Motor Systems and Sensorimotor Regulation
Study Strategies to Help You Succeed in Class
Closing Thoughts

Chapter 2. Basic Structure and Function of Neurons
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Discovery of Two Classes of Cells in the Nervous System
Neurons Are Made for Signaling and Communication
    Neuronal Soma or Cell Body
    Axons and Dendrites
Organelles of the Neuron
    Mitochondria
    Smooth and Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
    Golgi Apparatus
    The Nucleus Mediates the Process of Gene Expression
    Ribosomes
Nerve Cells Have Different Shapes and Functions
Neurons Can Arrange Themselves Into Many Different Patterns to Create Networks
Neurons Perform Three Fundamental Activities
Neurons Never Function Alone
The Glial Cell
    Glial Cells Are Divided Into Two Major Functional Groups
Conclusion
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 3. Basics of Neural Signaling and Synaptic Function
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Foundations of Neural Signaling: The Nature of Information in the Nervous System
    Electronics 101
        Concentration Gradients
        Developing an Electrical Gradient
        Voltage, Current, and Resistance
The Fluid Environment of the Neuron: Intracellular and Extracellular Composition
Ion Channels: Tunnels Across the Neuron’s Cell Membrane
    Many Ion Channels Are Always Open
    Ion Channels Can Be Selective and Control the Motion of Ions
    Ion Channels Can Gate Ionic Current in Three Ways
    Ion Pumps Are Active Transporters of Ions Across the Neuron’s Cell Membrane
Understanding Membrane Potentials
    Membrane Voltages Are Created by a Separation of Charges
    Vm Can Be Changed by Ionic Gradients and Currents
Development of the Neuron’s Resting Membrane Potential
The Action Potential
    Voltage-Gated Ion Channels Are Chiefly Responsible for AP Generation
    Voltage-Gated Na+ and K+ Channels Differ in Their Opening Speed
    The Action Potential in “Action”
    Propagation of the Action Potential Down the Axon
Synapses: The Point of Communication Between Neurons
    Electrical Synapses Allow for Virtually Instantaneous Signal Transmission
    Chemical Synapses: The Workhorse of the Nervous System
        Structure of the Chemical Synapse
        Chemical Synapse Function: Transmission Phase
        Chemical Synapse Function: Receptive Phase
        Postsynaptic Receptors Belong to Two Different Functional Classes
        Ending Chemical Synaptic Transmission: “Cleaning Up After the Party”
    Neurotransmitters Can Be Divided Into a Handful of Chemical Classes
        Amino Acids: Classical Neurotransmitters
        Amines: Classical Neurotransmitters
        Neuropeptides and Gases: Nonclassical Neurotransmitters
        A Few Final Words on Neurotransmission
Neural Integration: Closing (and Opening) the Neural Signaling Loop
    EPSPs and IPSPs Undergo Spatial and Temporal Summation
    Three Factors Influence Summation in a Neuron
    The “Government Analogy” of Neural Integration in the Postsynaptic Cell
Concluding Thoughts on Neurobiology
The Top Ten List
References

Section 2. Neuroanatomy: Peripheral and Central Nervous Systems

Chapter 4. Anatomical Nomenclature, Embryology, the Spinal Cord, and Brainstem
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Getting Around the Nervous System: Anatomical Planes and Orientations
    Anatomical Orientations
    Anatomical Planes
Gray Versus White Matter in the Nervous System
    Gray Matter in the CNS and PNS
    White Matter Consists of Bundles of Axons
A Brief Tour of the Embryological Development of the Nervous System
    The Human Embryo Is a Multilayered Collection of Cells
    Neural Crest and Neural Tube Cells Differentiate Into the PNS and CNS
Major Anatomical Structures and Functions of the Human Central Nervous System
    The Skull and Vertebral Column House and Protect the Tissues of the CNS
The Spinal Cord
    External Spinal Cord Structures
        Why Are the Spinal Nerves Necessary for Speech Production?
    Internal Spinal Cord Structure: Gray Matter
    Internal Spinal Cord Structure: White Matter
The Brainstem: An Overview
    The Medulla
        Medulla: External Features
        Medulla: Internal Features
    The Pons
        Pons: External Features
        Pons: Internal Features
    The Mesencephalon
        Mesencephalon: External Features
        Mesencephalon: Internal Features
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 5. The Cranial Nerve Systems
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Organization of the Cranial Nerves and Nuclei in the Brainstem
Functional Classifications of the Cranial Nerves
    Motor: General Somatic Efferent (GSE)
    Motor: Special Visceral Efferent (SVE)
    Motor: General Visceral Efferent (GVE)
    Sensory: General Somatic Afferent (GSA)
    Sensory: General Visceral Afferent (GVA)
    Sensory: Special Somatic Afferent (SSA)
    Sensory: Special Visceral Afferent (SVA)
Cranial Nerves: Healthy and Disordered Functions
    CN I: Olfactory (SVA)
    CN II: Optic (SSA)
    CN III: Oculomotor (GSE and GVE)
    CN IV: Trochlear (GSE)
    CN V: Trigeminal (GSA and SVE)
    CN VI: Abducens (GSE)
    CN VII: Facial (SVE, GVE, SVA, GSA)
    CN VIII: Auditory-Vestibular (SSA)
    CN IX: Glossopharyngeal (SVE, GVE, GVA, SVA, GSA)
    CN X: Vagus (SVE, GVE, GVA, SVA, GSA)
    CN XI: Spinal Accessory (SVE)
    CN XII: Hypoglossal (GSE)
        Cranial Nerve Assessment Procedure Available on PluralPlus
Peripheral Nerves Involved in Speech and Vocalization
    Cranial Nerve Efferent Pathways Innervate the Speech Musculature
        Phonatory and Respiratory Subsystems
        Velopharyngeal Subsystem
        Oral Articulatory Subsystem
    Cranial Nerve Afferent Pathways Transmit Speech-Related Signals to the Brain
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 6. Lobes of the Cerebrum, the Diencephalon, and Autonomic Regulation
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
The Cerebrum: The Center of Our Lives and Who We Are
The Lobes of the Cerebrum
    The Frontal Lobe: The Cognitive and Motor Control Center of the Cerebrum
        Frontal Lobe: Anatomical Features
        Frontal Lobe: Functional Features
    The Parietal Lobe: Multimodal Sensory Center of the Cerebrum
        Parietal Lobe: Anatomical Features
        Parietal Lobe: Functional Features
    The Temporal Lobe: The “Can You Hear Me Now” and “What Am I” Cerebral Region
        Temporal Lobe: Anatomical Features
        Temporal Lobe: Functional Features
    The Occipital Lobe: The Visual Center of the Cerebrum
        Occipital Lobe: Anatomical Features
        Occipital Lobe: Functional Features
    The Insula: Is It a Lobe or Not?
The Diencephalon
    The Thalamus: “Gatekeeper” of Ascending Information to the Cerebral Cortex
        The Ventral Thalamus Is Chiefly Active During Speech and Language Behaviors
    The Hypothalamus: “CEO” of the Body’s Homeostatic Regulatory Systems
        The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA) Operates as a Feedback Control System
        Hypothalamus Consists of Numerous Nuclei With Unique Operations
        Hypothalamic Nuclei Participate in a Wide Range of Homeostatic Functions
    The Autonomic Nervous System Is the Regulatory Control System for Homeostasis
        Hypothalamic Participation Coordinates ANS Activity
        Two Unique Features of ANS Organization and Its Connections to the Body
        Pathway Organization of the Sympathetic System
        Pathway Organization of the Parasympathetic System
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 7. Cerebral Cortical Function and the Association Areas
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
The Cerebral Cortex
    Anatomical Features of the Cerebral Cortex
    Organization of the Cerebral Cortex: Brodmann’s Areas and Cortical Columns
    The Cortex Is Arranged to Support Serial and Parallel Processing of Information
The Cerebrum Is Organized to Support Cognition Through Cortical Interconnections That Create the Association Cortices
    Parietal Association Areas Mediate Visual Guidance, Spatial Awareness, and Attention
    Temporal Association Areas Recognize Complex Objects
    Phineas Gage and the Iron Spike: An Accidental Study of the Frontal Association Area
    The Limbic System (Limbic Association Area): Emotional Center of the Brain
        Hippocampal Formation Is Involved in Spatial Learning and Long-Term Memory
        Hippocampal Formation Anatomy: Hippocampus, Dentate Gyrus, and Subiculum
        Amygdala Mediates Threat, Anxiety, and Aggressive Behaviors
        Cingulate Gyrus: At the Crossroads of Emotion and Cognition
Interhemispheric Connectivity and Cerebral Dominance
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 8. White Matter Tracts, Protective Infrastructure, and the Brain’s Blood Supply
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Connectivity and White Matter Pathways of the CNS
    Association Fibers Interconnect Areas Within a Hemisphere
    Commissural Fibers Link Brain Regions Across the Midline
    Projection Fibers Shuttle Information To and From the Brain
    Injury to Central Axons
Protecting the CNS From Harm: The Meninges and the Ventricular System
    The Meninges
    The Ventricular System
The Vascular System of the Brain
    Neurovascular Complex Is Divided Into Arterial and Venous Systems
    Anterior Arterial System
    Posterior Arterial System
    Venous System Sinuses Drain Deoxygenated Blood Back to the Heart
Vascular Pathology Can Arise From Three General Situations
    Aneurysms and Hemorrhagic Stroke
    Ischemic Events
    Arteriovenous Malformations
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 9. Neural Mechanisms of Speech and Language: Neuroanatomy, Models, and Select Disorders
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Neural Substrates of Speech and Language: How Do We Know What We Know?
Neuroanatomy of Speech Production: A Broad Overview
    Cortical Structures Involved in Speech Production
        Primary Motor Cortex
        Primary Somatosensory Cortex
        Primary Auditory Cortex and Auditory Association Areas
        Inferior Frontal Gyrus
        Supramarginal Gyrus
        Supplementary Motor Area
        Anterior Cingulate Cortex
        Cingulate Motor Area
        Insula
    Subcortical and Brainstem Structures and Their Contributions to Speech
        Reticular Formation
        Periaqueductal Gray Matter
        Thalamus
        Solitary (Tract) Nucleus
        Nucleus Ambiguus
        Facial Motor Nucleus
        Hypoglossal Nucleus
        Trigeminal System
Motor Control of Vocalization: Hierarchical Organization and Functional Interactions
    Functional Contributions of Key Brain Structures
Neuroanatomy of Language: A Broad Overview
    Perisylvian Language Zones
    White Matter Connections Involved in Language
Computational Models of Speech Production
    The Directions Into Velocities of Articulators Model (DIVA)
        DIVA—Feedforward and Feedback Control System Operation
Understanding Language Processing
    The “Classic” Language Model: Wernicke-Geschwind Model
    Dual Stream Processing Model of Expressive and Receptive Language and Speech
Selected Neurological Disorders of Speech, Vocalization, and Language
    Aphasias
        Broca’s Aphasia (Dorsal Stream Deficit)
        Wernicke’s Aphasia (Ventral Stream Deficit)
        Conduction Aphasia (Dorsal Stream Disruption)
        Transcortical Motor Aphasia (Dorsal Stream Deficit With Repetition Intact)
        Transcortical Sensory Aphasia (Ventral Stream Deficit With Repetition Intact)
        Global Aphasia (Severe Damage to Both Streams)
        Decision Tree Based on Fluency, Comprehension, and Repetition Can Help Differentially Diagnose Aphasia Types
        Language Recovery Following Stroke
    Dementia
    Traumatic Brain Injuries
    Right Hemisphere Related Language Deficits
    Motor Speech Disorders: Dysarthrias
    Other Speech Production Deficits
The Top Ten List
References
Appendix 9–1. Survey of Imaging Methods Used in the Study of Speech and Language Neural Systems

Section 3. Sensory Systems: Somatosensation, Audition, Vision, and the Chemical Senses

Chapter 10. Basic Principles of Sensation and Perception
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Sensation Versus Perception
    Nervous Systems Are Far From Ideal to Sense and Perceive
    Perception Requires Filtering, Selection, Inference, and Prediction
    Sensations Are Processed by Sensory Systems
    Quantifying Sensation and Perception
All Sensory Events Possess Four Basic Attributes Related to Perception
    Modality: What Is the Stimulus?
    Location: Where Is the Stimulus?
    Intensity: How Strong Is the Stimulus?
    Duration: How Long Does the Stimulus Last?
Sensation and Perception Are Actively Regulated by the CNS
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 11. The Somatosensory System: Touch, Proprioception, Temperature, and Pain
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Somatosensory Systems Have Three Principal Responsibilities
The Peripheral Somatosensory Apparatus: Sensory Receptors and the Primary Afferent
    Cutaneous Tactile Receptors of the Somatosensory System
    Proprioception Sense Is Mediated by Sensory Endings in the Musculoskeletal System
        Proprioception May Also Be Performed by Tactile Cutaneous Endings in the Skin
    Temperature Reception Depends on the Expression of Different Types of Ion Channels
    Nociception and the Perceptual Response of Pain
    Axon Features of the Primary Afferent That Transmits Inputs Centrally
    Dermatomes and the Trigeminal Innervation Zones
Central Somatosensory Pathways
    Dorsal Column–Medial Lemniscal System: Touch and Proprioception From the Body
    Anterolateral System: Noxious and Temperature Sensation
        Central Appreciation of Pain Is Conducted Along Two Parallel Routes
    Trigeminal System Manages All Forms of Somatosensation From the Face and Head
The Somatosensory Cortex
    Structural and Functional Features of the Somatosensory Cortex
    S1 Possesses Four Complete Body Representations
    Speech-Related Activity of S1
    Outputs From Primary to the Secondary Somatosensory Cortex
    Posterior Parietal Lobe Receives Inputs From Primary and Secondary Somatosensory Areas
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 12. Auditory-Vestibular System: Inner Ear Transduction Mechanisms for Sound and Balance
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
A Quick Summary of Acoustic Transduction in the Outer and Middle Ear
The Inner Ear and the Cochlea
    Basilar Membrane Is a Frequency Analyzer
    Organ of Corti Is the Chief Site for Transduction of Auditory Inputs
    Hair Cell Structural and Functional Features
    Stereocilia Are Key Elements for Signal Transduction in the Hair Cell
    Mechanotransduction Mechanism for Acoustic Signals in the Cochlea
        Stereocilia Shearing and Hair Cell Receptor Activation
    Auditory Nerve Transmits HC Receptor Potential Changes to the Cochlear Nuclei
        Auditory Nerve Firing Encodes Acoustic Intensity and Frequency
    If the IHC Is the True Sensory Receptor, Why Do OHCs Exist?
The Vestibular System
    Otolith Organs Transduce Linear Motion of the Head
    Semicircular Canals Measure Angular Acceleration of the Head
    Central Vestibular Pathway
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 13. Central Auditory Pathway and the Auditory Cortices
Anne D. Olson and Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Central Auditory Pathway Supports Auditory Skills We Use Daily
    An Analogy to Help Your Understanding: The CAP as a Highway System
The Central Auditory Pathway
    Cochlear Nucleus: Anatomy and Physiology
        Cochlear Nucleus Cell Types, Responses, and Function
        Frequency Preservation in the Cochlear Nucleus
        Temporal Preservation in the Cochlear Nucleus
        Intensity Preservation in the Cochlear Nucleus
    Superior Olivary Complex: Anatomy and Physiology
        Low-Frequency Sound Localization Is Processed in the MSO
        High-Frequency Sound Localization Requires Action of the LSO and         MNTB
        Superior Olivary Complex Allows for the Integration of Sounds From Both Ears
    Lateral Lemniscus: Anatomy and Physiology
    Inferior Colliculus: Anatomy and Physiology
    Medial Geniculate Body: Anatomy and Physiology
Auditory Cortical Areas
    The Primary Auditory Cortex
        Deeper Insights Into the Properties of the Primary Auditory Cortex
        Role of the Auditory Cortex in Speech and Vocalization
    The Secondary Auditory Cortex
    Auditory Association Areas
    Neuroimaging of the Human Auditory Cortex Reveals Distinct Features
Surprise! The Auditory System Has Efferent Pathways
    Stapedial Reflex Response Is Mediated Through the SOC
    Function of the Olivocochlear Bundle
The Auditory Brainstem Response
Concluding Thoughts on the Central Auditory Pathway
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 14. The Visual System
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
The Nature of Light in Our Environment
The Peripheral Visual Apparatus: Anatomical Overview of the Eye
    Gross Anatomy of the Anterior Eye
    Gross Anatomy of the Posterior Eye
    Visual Fields
The Retina
    Of Rods and Cones: Photoreceptors in the Retina
        Rods Mediate Vision During Dim and Nighttime Lighting
        Cones Mediate High Resolution and Color Vision in Bright Light Conditions
    Photoreceptors Connect to Bipolar Cells to Carry Out More Complex Visual     Processing
        Signal Integration and Convergence Through the Retinal Layers
The Central Visual Pathway
    Retinal Ganglion Cells Form the Beginning of Different Visual Processing Streams
    Retinal Ganglion Cell Axons Become the Fibers of the Optic Nerve, Chiasm, and     Tract
    Optic Tract Neurons Project Principally to the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
    The Primary Visual Cortex
Dorsal and Ventral Visual Streams
    The Dorsal Visual Processing Stream
    The Ventral Visual Processing Stream
Visual Field and Pathway Deficits
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 15. The Chemical Senses: Olfactory and Gustatory Systems, and the Neural Substrate of Swallowing
Richard D. Andreatta and Nicole M. Etter
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Olfactory System: An Overview
    Olfactory Receptors and the Transduction of Odorants
    Olfactory Receptors Adapt Rapidly to a Constant Odorant
    Odorants Are Detected by Different Combinations of ORN Receptors
    Olfactory Bulb Consists of Glomeruli
    Olfactory Bulb Projection Neurons Transmit Signals to the Olfactory Cortex
Gustatory System: An Overview
    Gustatory Receptors and Transduction
    Distribution of Taste Sensitivity Across the Surface of the Tongue
    Taste Buds Consist of Collections of Taste Receptor Cells
    Tastant Transduction Process
Central Gustatory Pathway
Central Representation of Taste
Dysfunction in the Chemical Senses
    Chemosensory Changes Associated With Typical Aging
    Chemosensory Changes Associated With Surgical Intervention
    Chemosensory Changes Associated With Injury or Disease
The Neural Substrate of Normal Feeding and Swallowing
    The Aerodigestive Tract Supports Different Modes of Behavior
    Brief Overview of the Process for Feeding and Swallowing
        Oral Preparatory and Oral Transport Phases of Swallowing
        Pharyngeal and Esophageal Phases of Swallowing
    Neural Elements Participating in the Process of Swallowing
        Olfactory Nerve Contribution
        Trigeminal Nerve Contribution
        Facial Nerve Contribution
        Glossopharyngeal Nerve Contribution
        Vagus Nerve Contribution
        Hypoglossal Nerve Contribution
        Spinal Nerve Contribution
    Brainstem Respiratory Centers Are Voluntarily Modulated During Swallowing
    Cortical and Subcortical Control of Swallowing
    Control and Function of the Swallowing Central Pattern Generator
The Top Ten List
References

Section 4. Motor Systems and Sensorimotor Regulation

Chapter 16. Principles of Movement and Goal-Directed Action: Muscle Contraction, the Motor Unit, and the Primary Motor Cortical System
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Types of Muscle Tissue
Hierarchical Organization of Skeletal Muscle Tissue: From Bundle to Fiber
The Muscle Fiber (Cell)
    Internal Structure of the Muscle Fiber
Organization and Structure of the Myofibril
    Myofibrils Are Serial Collections of Sarcomeres
    Molecular Subcomponents of the Sarcomere
        Structure and Function of Myosin
        The Function of Actin and Accessory Proteins in the Sarcomere
        Titin: A Giant Among Proteins
    Neuromuscular Junction Mediates the Neural Signal That Starts Muscle Contraction
    Contraction Physiology: Excitation-Contraction Coupling in the Muscle Fiber
    Contraction Physiology: Cross-Bridge Formation
Investigating the Contraction Properties of Muscle Tissue
    Muscle Forces Increase With Firing Rate of the Lower Motoneuron
The Motor Unit
    Motor Units Can Be Defined by Their Innervation Ratio
    Size Principle of Motor Unit Recruitment
Foundations of Goal-Directed Sensory-Motor Control
    Neuromotor Control Elements of the CNS: Direct Versus Indirect Systems
Descending Tracts of the Direct Motor Control System
    Descending Motor Pathways From the Cerebrum: Corticospinal and Corticobulbar Tracts
    Anatomical Course of the Corticospinal and Corticobulbar Pathways
        Corticospinal Tract: Course and Function
        Corticobulbar Tract: Course and Function
        The Curious Case of UMN Versus LMN Facial Palsy
    Descending Motor Pathways Originating From the Brainstem
Cerebral Motor Area Underlying Voluntary Control
    Organization and Functional Mapping of M1
    Discovery of the Inner Workings of M1
    Different Neuron Firing Patterns in M1
    M1 Uses Population Coding to Generate More Complex Performance Features of an Action
    Sensory Inputs to M1 Provide Real-Time Information About the Body’s Current State
    M1 Role During Speech Is Complex and Multifaceted
Deficits in Motor Control Can Result From Damage to Upper or Lower Motoneurons
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 17. Essential Roles for the Premotor and Indirect Motor Systems During Goal-Directed Action
Richard D. Andreatta
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Developing a Broader Understanding of Action and Skilled Behaviors
The Premotor Cortex
    PMA Activity Is Strongly Associated With Upper Limb and Hand Actions
    Supplementary Motor Area Activity Is a Necessary Element for Speech Motor Control
    The Cingulate Motor Map Links Action to Emotion
Indirect Motor Control Systems
    Basal Ganglia Is a Selector of Movement
    The Caudate and Putamen and Their Connections
    Globus Pallidus and Its Connections
    Subthalamic Nucleus and Its Connections
    Substantia Nigra and Its Connections
    Schematic Organization and Functional Overview of the BG Nuclei
    The Direct and Indirect Pathways of the Basal Ganglia
        Direct Pathway Operation in the BG
        Indirect Pathway Operation in the BG
        Role of the SNpc in the BG
    Lesions to the Basal Ganglia Can Produce Hypo- or Hyperkinetic Deficits
        Hypokinetic Disorders of the BG Are Related to Indirect Pathway Influence
        Hyperkinetic Disorders of the BG Are Related to Direct Pathway Overactivity
    Cerebellum Operates to Coordinate and Refine Movements
    Cerebellar Lobes and the Deep Cerebellar Nuclei
    Functional Divisions of the Cerebellum and Their Input/Output Pathways
    Functional Cerebellar Areas Form Processing Circuits
        Vestibulocerebellar Circuit
        Spinocerebellar Circuit
        Cerebrocerebellar Circuit
    Consequences of Cerebellar Lesion Reveal the Operation of the System
    Cerebellar System Contribution to Speech and Language
The Top Ten List
References

Chapter 18. Introduction to Neuroplasticity and Perception-Action Theories for Sensorimotor Learning
Richard D. Andreatta and Patrick O. McKeon
Introduction and Learning Objectives
Introduction to Neuroplasticity: Changes to the Structure and Function of the Brain
    Somatosensory Cortex Receives Divergent Projections From the Thalamus
    S1 Plasticity as a Function of Enriched Experiences
    The Timing of Sensory Inputs Are Critical Factors in Changing Cortical     Representations
    Neuroplasticity Also Happens in Motor Areas of the Cortex
    Implication of the Neuroplasticity Literature to Rehabilitation
Sensory Experiences, Neural Adaptation, and the Basis of Learning Skilled Action
Principles of Motor Control: The Theory Underlying Motor Learning, Skill Acquisition, and Goal-Directed Actions
What Exactly Is Sensorimotor Control?
From Perception to Action . . . and Back Again
Foundations of Sensorimotor Control Theory
    Open-Loop Systems
    Closed-Loop Systems
    Nikolai Bernstein: A Russian Revolutionary Figure in Motor Control
        Bernstein’s Problem and Motor Equivalence
From Bernstein to Current Motor Control Theories
    The General Motor Program Theory
    The Dynamic Systems Theory of Motor Control
    Contrasting Motor Program Theory and Dynamic Systems Theory
    Perception and Action Are Coupled According to Dynamic Systems Theory
The Dynamics of Motor Skill Acquisition
    An Example of Sensorimotor Skill Acquisition: Learning to Dance
The Top Ten List
References

Glossary
Index